  From DOS/Windows to Linux HOWTO
  By Guido Gonzato, guido@ibogfs.cineca.it
  v1.2.2, 31 October 1997

  This HOWTO is dedicated to all the (soon to be former?) DOS and Win­
  dows users who have just taken the plunge and decided to switch to
  Linux, the free UNIX clone. Given the similarities between DOS and
  UNIX, the purpose of this document is to help the reader translate his
  or her knowledge of DOS and Windows into the Linux environment, so as
  to be productive ASAP.

  1.  Introduction

  1.1.  Is Linux Right for You?

  You want to switch from DOS/Windows to Linux? Good idea, but beware:
  it might not be useful for you. IMHO, there is no such thing as ``the
  best computer'' or ``the best operating system'': it depends on what
  one has to do. That's why I don't believe that Linux is the best
  solution for everyone, even if it's technically superior to many
  commercial OS's. You're going to benefit immensely from Linux if what
  you need is sw for programming, the Internet, TeX... technical sw in
  general, but if you mostly need commercial sw, or if you don't feel
  like learning and typing commands, look elsewhere.

  Linux is not (for now) as easy to use and configure as Windows or the
  Mac, so be prepared to hack quite a bit. In spite of these warnings,
  let me tell you that I'm 100% confident that if you belong to the
  right user type you'll find in Linux your computer Nirvana. It's up to
  you. And remember that Linux + DOS/Windows can coexist on the same
  machine, anyway.

  Prerequisites for this howto: I'll assume that

  ·  you know the basic DOS commands and concepts;

  ·  Linux, possibly with X Window System, is properly installed on your
     PC;

  ·  your shell---the equivalent of COMMAND.COM---is bash;

  ·  you understand that this guide is only an incomplete primer. For
     more information, please refer to Matt Welsh's ``Linux Installation
     and Getting Started'' and/or Larry Greenfield's ``Linux User
     Guide''  (sunsite.unc.edu:/pub/Linux/docs/LDP).

  This howto replaces the old ``From DOS to Linux --- Quick!'' mini-
  howto.  Also note that, unless specified, all information in this work
  is aimed at bad ol' DOS. There's a section about Windows, but bear in
  mind that Windows and Linux are totally different, unlike DOS which is
  sort of a UNIX poor relation.

  1.2.  It Is. Tell Me More

  You installed Linux and the programs you needed on the PC. You gave
  yourself an account (if not, type adduser now!) and Linux is running.
  You've just entered your name and password, and now you are looking at
  the screen thinking: ``Well, now what?''

  Now, don't despair. You're almost ready to do the same things you used
  to do with DOS, and many more. If you were running DOS instead of
  Linux, you would be doing some of the following tasks:

  ·  running programs and creating, copying, viewing, deleting,
     printing, renaming files;

  ·  CD'ing, MD'ing, RD'ing, and DIR'ring your directories;

  ·  formatting floppies and copying files from/to them;

  ·  mending your AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS;

  ·  writing your own .BAT files and/or QBasic and/or C/Pascal programs;

  ·  the remaining 1%.

  You'll be glad to know that these tasks can be accomplished under
  Linux in a fashion similar to DOS. Under DOS, the average user uses
  very few of the 100+ commands available: the same, up to a point,
  holds for Linux.

  A few things to point out before going on:

  ·  first, how to get out. To quit Linux: if you see a text mode
     screen, press CTRL-ALT-DEL, wait for the system to fix its innards
     and tell you everything is OK, then switch off the PC. If you are
     working under X Window System, press CTRL-ALT-BACKSPACE first, then
     CTRL-ALT-DEL. Never switch off or reset the PC directly: this could
     damage the file system;

  ·  unlike DOS, Linux has built-in security mechanisms, due to its
     multiuser nature. Files and directories have permissions associated
     to them, and therefore some cannot be accessed by the normal user;
     (see Section ``Permissions''). Only the user whose login name is
     ``root'' has the power. (This guy's the system administrator. If
     you work on your own PC, you'll be root as well.) DOS, on the
     contrary, will let you wipe out the entire contents of your hard
     disk;

  ·  you are strongly encouraged to experiment, play, try by yourself:
     it surely won't hurt.  If you need help, you can do the following:

  ·  to get some help about the ``internal commands'' of the shell, type
     help;

  ·  to get help on a command, type man command that invokes the manual
     (``man'') page pertinent to command. Alternatively, type info
     command that invokes, if available, the info page pertinent to
     command. Info is a hypertext-based documentation system, perhaps
     not intuitive to use at first. Finally, you may try apropos command
     or whatis command pressing then `q' to exit;

  ·  most of the power and flexibility of UNIX comes from the simple
     concepts of redirection and piping, more powerful than under DOS.
     Simple commands can be strung together to accomplish complex tasks.
     Do use these features!

  ·  conventions: <...> means something that must be specified, while
     [...] something optional. Example:

  $ tar -tf <file.tar> [> redir_file]

  file.tar must be indicated, but redirection to redir_file is optional.

  ·  from now on ``RMP'' means ``please read the man pages for further
     information''.

  1.3.  For the Impatient

  Want to strike out? Have a look at this:

       DOS                     Linux                   Notes
       ------------------------------------------------------------------------------

       BACKUP                  tar -Mcvf device dir/   completely different
       CD dirname\             cd dirname/             almost the same syntax
       COPY file1 file2        cp file1 file2          ditto
       DEL file                rm file                 beware - no undelete
       DELTREE dirname         rm -R dirname/          ditto
       DIR                     ls                      not exactly the same syntax
       DIR file /S             find . -name file       completely different
       EDIT file               vi file                 I think you won't like it
                               emacs file              this is better
                               jstar file              feels like dos' edit
       FORMAT                  fdformat,
                               mount, umount           quite different syntax
       HELP command            man command             same philosophy
       MD dirname              mkdir dirname/          almost the same syntax
       MOVE file1 file2        mv file1 file2          ditto
       NUL                     /dev/null               ditto
       PRINT file              lpr file                ditto
       PRN                     /dev/lp0,
                               /dev/lp1                ditto
       RD dirname              rmdir dirname/          almost the same syntax
       REN file1 file2         mv file1 file2          not for multiple files
       RESTORE                 tar -Mxpvf device       different syntax
       TYPE file               less file               much better
       WIN                     startx                  poles apart!

  If you need more than a table of commands, please refer to the
  following sections.

  2.  Files and Programs

  2.1.  Files: Preliminary Notions

  Linux has a file system---meaning by that ``the structure of
  directories and files therein''---very similar to that of DOS. Files
  have filenames that obey special rules, are stored in directories,
  some are executable, and among these most have command switches.
  Moreover, you can use wildcard characters, redirection, and piping.
  There are only a few minor differences:

  ·  under DOS, file names are in the so-called 8.3 form; e.g.
     NOTENOUG.TXT. Under Linux we can do better. If you installed Linux
     using a file system like ext2 or umsdos, you can use longer
     filenames (up to 255 characters), and with more than one dot in
     them: for example, This_is.a.VERY_long.filename. Please note that I
     used both upper and lower case characters: in fact...

  ·  upper and lower case characters in file names or commands are
     different. Therefore, FILENAME.tar.gz and filename.tar.gz are two
     different files. ls is a command, LS is a mistake;

  ·  Windows 95 users will want to use long file names under Linux, of
     course. If a file name contains spaces (not recommended but
     possible), you must enclose the file in double quotes whenever your
     refer to it. For example:

       $ # the following command makes a directory called "My old files"
       $ mkdir "My old files"
       $ ls
       My old files    bin     tmp

  Some characters shouldn't but can be used: some are !*$&. I won't tell
  you how, though.

  ·  there are no compulsory extensions like .COM and ..EXE for
     programs, or .BAT for batch files. Executable files are marked by
     an asterisk '*' at the end of their name when you issue the ls -F
     command. For example:

       $ ls -F
       I_am_a_dir/   cindy.jpg    cjpg*   letter_to_Joe    my_1st_script*  old~

  The files cjpg* and my_1st_script* are executable---``programs''.
  Under DOS, backup files end in .BAK, while under Linux they end with a
  tilde as hidden. Example: the file .I.am.a.hidden.file won't show up
  after the ls command;

  ·  DOS program switches are obtained with /switch, Linux switches with
     -switch or --switch. Example: dir /s becomes ls -R. Note that many
     DOS programs, like PKZIP or ARJ, use UNIX-style switches.

  You can now jump to Section ``Translating Commands from DOS to
  Linux'', but if I were you I'd read on.

  2.2.  Symbolic Links

  UNIX has a type of file that doesn't exist under DOS: the symbolic
  link.  This can be thought of as a pointer to a file or to a
  directory, and can be used instead of the file or directory it points
  to; it's similar to Windows 95 shortcuts. Examples of symbolic links
  are /usr/X11, which points to /usr/X11R6; /dev/modem, which points to
  either /dev/cua0 or /dev/cua1.

  To make a symbolic link:

       $ ln -s <file_or_dir> <linkname>

  Example:

       $ ln -s /usr/doc/g77/DOC g77manual.txt

  Now you can refer to g77manual.txt instead of /usr/doc/g77/DOC.  Links
  appear like this in directory listings:

       $ ls -F
       g77manual.txt@
       $ ls -l
       (various things...)           g77manual.txt -> /usr/doc/g77/DOC

  2.3.  Permissions and Ownership

  DOS files and directories have the following attributes: A (archive),
  H (hidden), R (read-only), and S (system). Only H and R make sense
  under Linux: hidden files start with a dot, and for the R attribute,
  read on.

  Under UNIX a file has ``permissions'' and an owner, who in turn
  belongs to a ``group''. Look at this example:

       $ ls -l /bin/ls
       -rwxr-xr-x  1  root  bin  27281 Aug 15 1995 /bin/ls*

  The first field contains the permissions of the file /bin/ls, which
  belongs to root, group bin. Leaving the remaining information aside
  (Matt's book is there for that purpose), remember that -rwxr-xr-x
  means, from left to right:
  - is the file type (- = ordinary file, d = directory, l = link, etc);
  rwx are the permissions for the file owner (read, write, execute); r-x
  are the permissions for the group of the file owner (read, execute);
  (I won't cover the concept of group, you can survive without it as
  long as you're a beginner ;-) r-x are the permissions for all other
  users (read, execute).

  This is why you can't delete the file /bin/ls unless you are root: you
  don't have the write permission to do so. To change a file's
  permissions, the command is:

       $ chmod <whoXperm> <file>

  where who is u (user, that is owner), g (group), o (other), X is
  either + or -, perm is r (read), w (write), or x (execute). Examples:

       $ chmod u+x file

  this sets the execute permission for the file owner. Shortcut: chmod
  +x file.

       $ chmod go-wx file

  this removes write and execute permission for everyone but the owner.

       $ chmod ugo+rwx file

  this gives everyone read, write, and execute permission.

       # chmod +s file

  this makes a so-called ``setuid'' or ``suid'' file---a file that
  everyone can execute with its owner's privileges. Typically, you'll
  come across root suid files.

  A shorter way to refer to permissions is with numbers: rwxr-xr-x can
  be expressed as 755 (every letter corresponds to a bit: --- is 0, --x
  is 1, -w- is 2, -wx is 3...). It looks difficult, but with a bit of
  practice you'll understand the concept.

  root, being the so-called superuser, can change everyone's file
  permissions.  There's more to it---RMP.

  2.4.  Translating Commands from DOS to Linux

  On the left, the DOS commands; on the right, their Linux counterpart.

       COPY:           cp
       DEL:            rm
       MOVE:           mv
       REN:            mv
       TYPE:           more, less, cat

  Redirection and plumbing operators:  < > >> |

  Wildcards: * ?

  nul: /dev/null

  prn, lpt1:   /dev/lp0 or /dev/lp1; lpr

  - EXAMPLES -

       DOS                                     Linux
       ---------------------------------------------------------------------

       C:\GUIDO>COPY JOE.TXT JOE.DOC           $ cp joe.txt joe.doc
       C:\GUIDO>COPY *.* TOTAL                 $ cat * > total
       C:\GUIDO>COPY FRACTALS.DOC PRN          $ lpr fractals.doc
       C:\GUIDO>DEL TEMP                       $ rm temp
       C:\GUIDO>DEL *.BAK                      $ rm *~
       C:\GUIDO>MOVE PAPER.TXT TMP\            $ mv paper.txt tmp/
       C:\GUIDO>REN PAPER.TXT PAPER.ASC        $ mv paper.txt paper.asc
       C:\GUIDO>PRINT LETTER.TXT               $ lpr letter.txt
       C:\GUIDO>TYPE LETTER.TXT                $ more letter.txt
       C:\GUIDO>TYPE LETTER.TXT                $ less letter.txt
       C:\GUIDO>TYPE LETTER.TXT > NUL          $ cat letter.txt > /dev/null
               n/a                             $ more *.txt *.asc
               n/a                             $ cat section*.txt | less

  Notes:

  ·  * is smarter under Linux: * matches all files except the hidden
     ones; 1middle, followed by other characters; p*r matches both
     `peter' and `piper'; *c* matches both `picked' and `peck';

  ·  when using more, press SPACE to read through the file, `q' or CTRL-
     C to exit. less is more intuitive and lets you use the arrow keys;

  ·  there is no UNDELETE, so think twice before deleting anything;

  ·  in addition to DOS < > >>, Linux has 2> to redirect error messages
     (stderr); moreover, 2>&1 redirects stderr to stdout, while 1>&2
     redirects stdout to stderr;

  ·  Linux has another wildcard: the []. Use: [abc]* matches files
     starting with a, b, c; *[I-N,1,2,3] matches files ending with I, J,
     K, L, M, N, 1, 2, 3;

  ·  there is no DOS-like RENAME; that is, mv *.xxx *.yyy won't work.
     You could try this simple script; see Section ``Shell Scripts'' for
     details.

     ___________________________________________________________________
     #!/bin/sh
     # ren: rename multiple files according to several rules

     if [ $# -lt 3 ] ; then
       echo "usage: ren \"pattern\" \"replacement\" files..."
       exit 1
     fi

     OLD=$1 ; NEW=$2 ; shift ; shift

     for file in $*
     do
       new=`echo ${file} | sed s/${OLD}/${NEW}/g`
       mv ${file} $new
     done
     ___________________________________________________________________

  Beware: it doesn't behave like DOS REN, as it uses ``regular expres­
  sions'' that you still don't know. Shortly, if you simply want to
  change file extensions, use it as in: ren "htm$" "html" *htm.  Don't
  forget the $ sign.

  ·  use cp -i and mv -i to be warned when a file is going to be
     overwritten.

  2.5.  Running Programs: Multitasking and Sessions

  To run a program, type its name as you would do under DOS. If the
  directory (Section ``Directories'') where the program is stored is
  included in the PATH (Section ``System Initialisation''), the program
  will start. Exception: unlike DOS, under Linux a program located in
  the current directory won't run unless the directory is included in
  the PATH. Escamotage: being prog your program, type ./prog.

  This is what the typical command line looks like:

       $ command -s1 -s2 ... -sn par1 par2 ... parn < input > output

  where -s1, ..., -sn are the program switches, par1, the command line:

  $ command1 ; command2 ; ... ; commandn

  That's all about running programs, but it's easy to go a step beyond.
  One of the main reasons for using Linux is that it is a multitasking
  os---it can run several programs (from now on, processes) at the same
  time. You can launch processes in background and continue working
  straight away. Moreover, Linux lets you have several sessions: it's
  like having many computers to work on at once!

  ·  To switch to session 1..6:

       $ ALT-F1 ... ALT-F6

  ·  To start a new session without leaving the current one:

       $ su - <loginname>

  Example:

       $ su - root

  This is useful, for one, when you need to mount a disk (Section
  ``Floppies''): normally, only root can do that.

  ·  To end a session:

       $ exit

  If there are stopped jobs (see later), you'll be warned.

  ·  To launch a process in foreground:

       $ progname [-switches] [parameters] [< input] [> output]

  ·  To launch a process in background, add an ampersand '&' at the end
     of the command line:

       $ progname [-switches] [parameters] [< input] [> output] &
       [1] 123

  the shell identifies the process with a job number (e.g. [1]; see
  below), and with a PID (123 in our example).

  ·  To see how many processes there are:

       $ ps -a

  This will output a list of currently running processes.

  ·  To kill a process:

       $ kill <PID>

  You may need to kill a process when you don't know how to quit it the
  right way... ;-). Sometimes, a process will only be killed by either
  of the following:

       $ kill -15 <PID>
       $ kill -9 <PID>

  In addition to this, the shell allows you to stop or temporarily sus­
  pend a process, send a process to background, and bring a process from
  background to foreground. In this context, processes are called
  ``jobs''.

  ·  To see how many jobs there are:

       $ jobs

  here jobs are identified by their job number, not by their PID.
  ·  To stop a process running in foreground (it won't always work):

       $ CTRL-C

  ·  To suspend a process running in foreground (ditto):

       $ CTRL-Z

  ·  To send a suspended process into background (it becomes a job):

       $ bg <job>

  ·  To bring a job to foreground:

       $ fg <job>

  ·  To kill a job:

       $ kill <%job>

  where <job> may be 1, 2, 3, ...  Using these commands you can format a
  disk, zip a bunch of files, compile a program, and unzip an archive
  all at the same time, and still have the prompt at your disposal. Try
  this with DOS! And try with Windows, just to see the difference in
  performance.

  2.6.  Running Programs on Remote Computers

  To run a program on a remote machine whose IP address is
  remote.bigone.edu, you do:

  $ telnet remote.bigone.edu

  After logging in, start your favourite program. Needless to say, you
  must have an account on the remote machine.

  If you have X11, you can even run an X application on a remote
  computer, displaying it on your X screen. Let remote.bigone.edu be the
  remote X computer and local.linux.box be your Linux machine. To run
  from local.linux.box an X program that resides on remote.bigone.edu,
  do the following:

  ·  fire up X11, start an xterm or equivalent terminal emulator, then
     type:

       $ xhost +remote.bigone.edu
       $ telnet remote.bigone.edu

  ·  after logging in, type:

       remote:$ DISPLAY=local.linux.box:0.0
       remote:$ progname &

  (instead of DISPLAY..., you may have to write setenv DISPLAY
  local.linux.box:0.0. It depends on the remote shell.)

  Et voila! Now progname will start on remote.bigone.edu and will be
  displayed on your machine. Don't try this over a ppp line though, for
  it's too slow to be usable.

  3.  Using Directories

  3.1.  Directories: Preliminary Notions

  We have seen the differences between files under DOS and Linux. As for
  directories, under DOS the root directory is  under Linux / is.
  Similarly, nested directories are separated by  under DOS, by / under
  Linux. Example of file paths:

       DOS:    C:\PAPERS\GEOLOGY\MID_EOC.TEX
       Linux:  /home/guido/papers/geology/mid_eocene.tex

  As usual, .. is the parent directory, . is the current directory.
  Remember that the system won't let you cd, rd, or md everywhere you
  want. Each user starts from his or her own directory called dir is
  /home/guido.

  3.2.  Directories Permissions

  Directories, too, have permissions. What we have seen in Section
  ``Permissions'' holds for directories as well (user, group, and
  other). For a directory, rx means you can cd to that directory, and w
  means that you can delete a file in the directory (according to the
  file's permissions, of course), or the directory itself.

  For example, to prevent other users from snooping in /home/guido/text:

       $ chmod o-rwx /home/guido/text

  3.3.  Translating Commands from DOS to Linux

       DIR:            ls, find, du
       CD:             cd, pwd
       MD:             mkdir
       RD:             rmdir
       DELTREE:        rm -R
       MOVE:           mv

  - EXAMPLES -

  DOS                                     Linux
  ---------------------------------------------------------------------

  C:\GUIDO>DIR                            $ ls
  C:\GUIDO>DIR FILE.TXT                   $ ls file.txt
  C:\GUIDO>DIR *.H *.C                    $ ls *.h *.c
  C:\GUIDO>DIR/P                          $ ls | more
  C:\GUIDO>DIR/A                          $ ls -l
  C:\GUIDO>DIR *.TMP /S                   $ find / -name "*.tmp"
  C:\GUIDO>CD                             $ pwd
          n/a - see note                  $ cd
          ditto                           $ cd ~
          ditto                           $ cd ~/temp
  C:\GUIDO>CD \OTHER                      $ cd /other
  C:\GUIDO>CD ..\TEMP\TRASH               $ cd ../temp/trash
  C:\GUIDO>MD NEWPROGS                    $ mkdir newprogs
  C:\GUIDO>MOVE PROG ..                   $ mv prog ..
  C:\GUIDO>MD \PROGS\TURBO                $ mkdir /progs/turbo
  C:\GUIDO>DELTREE TEMP\TRASH             $ rm -R temp/trash
  C:\GUIDO>RD NEWPROGS                    $ rmdir newprogs
  C:\GUIDO>RD \PROGS\TURBO                $ rmdir /progs/turbo

  Notes:

  1. when using rmdir, the directory to remove must be empty. To delete
     a directory and all of its contents, use rm -R (at your own risk).

  2. the character '~' is a shortcut for the name of your home
     directory. The commands cd or cd ~ will take you to your home
     directory from wherever you are; the command cd ~/tmp will take you
     to /home/your_home/tmp.

  3. cd - ``undoes'' the last cd.

  4.  Floppies, Hard Disks, and the Like

  4.1.  Managing Devices

  You have never thought about it, but the DOS command FORMAT A: does a
  lot more work than it seems. In fact, when you issue the command
  FORMAT it will: 1) physically format the disk; 2) create the
  A: directory (= create a filesystem); 3) make the disk available to
  the user (= mount the disk).

  These three steps are addressed separately under Linux. You can use
  floppies in MS-DOS format, though other formats are available and are
  better---the MS-DOS format won't let you use long filenames. Here is
  how to prepare a disk (you'll need to start a session as root):

  ·  To format a standard 1.44 meg floppy disk (A:):

       # fdformat /dev/fd0H1440

  ·  To create a filesystem:

       # mkfs -t ext2 -c /dev/fd0H1440

  To create an MS-DOS filesystem, use msdos instead of ext2. Before
  using the disk, you must mount it.

  ·  To mount the disk:

       # mount -t ext2 /dev/fd0 /mnt

  or

       # mount -t msdos /dev/fd0 /mnt

  Now you can address the files in the floppy. When you've finished,
  before extracting the disk you must unmount it.

  ·  To unmount the disk:

       # umount /mnt

  Now you can extract the disk. Obviously, you have to fdformat and mkfs
  only unformatted disks, not previously used ones. If you want to use
  drive B:, refer to fd1H1440 and fd1 instead of fd0H1440 and fd0 in the
  examples above.

  All you used to do with A: or B: is now done using /mnt instead.
  Examples:

       DOS                                     Linux
       ---------------------------------------------------------------------

       C:\GUIDO>DIR A:                         $ ls /mnt
       C:\GUIDO>COPY A:*.*                     $ cp /mnt/* /docs/temp
       C:\GUIDO>COPY *.ZIP A:                  $ cp *.zip /mnt/zip
       C:\GUIDO>A:                             $ cd /mnt
       A:>_                                    /mnt/$ _

  If you don't like this mounting/unmounting thing, use the mtools
  suite: it's a set of commands that are perfectly equivalent to their
  DOS counterpart, but start with an `m': i.e., mformat, mdir, mdel, and
  so on. They can even preserve long file names, but not file
  permissions. Use these commands as you'd use the DOS commands and rest
  in peace.

  Needless to say, what holds for floppies also holds for other devices;
  for instance, you may want to mount another hard disk or a CD-ROM
  drive. Here's how to mount the CD-ROM:

       # mount -t iso9660 /dev/cdrom /mnt

  This was the ``official'' way to mount your disks, but there's a trick
  in store. Since it's a bit of a nuisance having to be root to mount a
  floppy or a CD-ROM, every user can be allowed to mount them this way:

  ·  as root, do the following:

       ~# mkdir /mnt/a: ; mkdir /mnt/a ; mkdir /mnt/cdrom
       ~# chmod 777 /mnt/a* /mnt/cd*
       ~# # make sure that the CD-ROM device is right
       ~# chmod 666 /dev/hdb ; chmod 666 /dev/fd*

  ·  add in /etc/fstab the following lines:

       /dev/cdrom      /mnt/cdrom  iso9660 ro,user,noauto          0       0
       /dev/fd0        /mnt/a:     msdos   user,noauto             0       0
       /dev/fd0        /mnt/a      ext2    user,noauto             0       0

  Now, to mount a DOS floppy, an ext2 floppy, and a CD-ROM:

       $ mount /mnt/a:
       $ mount /mnt/a
       $ mount /mnt/cdrom

  /mnt/a, /mnt/a:, and /mnt/cdrom can now be accessed by every user.
  Remember that allowing everyone to mount disks this way is a gaping
  security hole, if you care.

  4.2.  Backing Up

  Now that you know how to handle floppies etc., a couple of lines to
  see how to do your backup. There are several packages to help you, but
  the very least you can do for a multi-volume backup is (as root):

       # tar -M -cvf /dev/fd0H1440 dir_to_backup/

  Make sure to have a formatted floppy in the drive, and several more
  ready.  To restore your stuff, insert the first floppy in the drive
  and do:

       # tar -M -xpvf /dev/fd0H1440

  5.  What About Windows?

  The ``equivalent'' of Windows is the graphic system X11. Unlike
  Windows or the Mac, X11 wasn't designed for ease of use or to look
  good, but just to provide graphic facilities to UNIX workstations.
  These are the main differences:

  ·  while Windows looks and feels the same all over the world, X11
     doesn't: it's much more configurable. X11's overall look is given
     by a key component called ``window manager''; there are many you
     can choose from. The most common are fvwm, basic but nice and
     memory efficient, fvwm2-95 and The Next Level that give X11 a
     Windows 95--like taste, plus several others. Some look really
     beautiful;

  ·  your window manager can be configured so as a window acts as in,
     er, Windows: you click on it and it comes to foreground. Another
     possibility is that it comes to foreground when the mouse is
     located on it. This feature (``focus'') and many others can be
     altered by editing one or more configuration files. Read the docs
     of your window manager;

  ·  X applications are written using special libraries (``widget
     sets''); as several are available, applications look different. The
     most basic ones are those that use the Athena widgets (2--D look;
     xdvi, xman, xcalc); others use Motif (netscape), others still use
     Tcl/Tk, XForms, Qt and what have you. Some---not all---of these
     libraries provide roughly the same look and feel as Windows;

  ·  so much for the look of X11, but what about the feel?
     Unfortunately, all applications behave differently. For instance,
     if you select a line of text using the mouse and press BACKSPACE,
     you'd expect the line to disappear, right? This doesn't work with
     Athena--based apps, but it does with Motif, Qt, and Tcl/Tk ones;

  ·  scrollbars, resizing, and iconisation: these, too, depend on the
     window manager and the widget set. Too many different things to
     mention here, just a couple of points. When using Athena--based
     apps the scrollbars are better moved with the central button. If
     you don't have a three--button mouse, try pressing the two buttons
     together;

  ·  applications don't have an icon by default, but they can have many.
     It depends on the window manager. The desktop is called ``root
     window'', and you can change its appearance with apps like xsetroot
     or xloadimage;

  ·  the clipboard can only contain text, and behaves strange. Once
     you've selected text, it's already copied to the clipboard: move
     elsewhere and press the central button. There's an application,
     xclipboard, that provides for multiple clipboard buffers;

  ·  drag and drop is an option, and is only available if you use X
     applications that support it.

  To save memory, it's better to use applications that use the same
  libraries, but this is difficult to do in practice. There's a project
  called the K Desktop Environment that aims at making X11 look and
  behave as coherently as Windows; it's currently in early beta stage
  but, believe me, it's awesome.  It's going to put Windows' interface
  to shame. Point your browser to http://www.kde.org.

  6.  Tailoring the System

  6.1.  System Initialisation Files

  Two important files under DOS are AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS, which
  are used at boot time to initialise the system, set some environment
  variables like PATH and FILES, and possibly launch a program or batch
  file.  Under Linux there are several initialisation files, some of
  which you had better not tamper with until you know exactly what you
  are doing. I'll tell you what the most important are, anyway:

       FILES                           NOTES

       /etc/inittab                    don't touch for now!
       /etc/rc.d/*                     ditto

  If all you need is setting the $PATH and other environment variables,
  or you want to change the login messages or automatically launch a
  program after the login, have a look at the following files:

  FILES                                   NOTES

  /etc/issue                              sets pre-login message
  /etc/motd                               sets post-login message
  /etc/profile                            sets $PATH and other variables, etc.
  /etc/bashrc                             sets aliases and functions, etc.
  /home/your_home/.bashrc                 sets your aliases + functions
  /home/your_home/.bash_profile   or
  /home/your_home/.profile                sets environment + starts your progs

  If the latter file exists (note that it is a hidden file), it will be
  read after the login and the commands in it will be executed.

  Example---look at this .bash_profile:

  ______________________________________________________________________
  # I am a comment
  echo Environment:
  printenv | less   # equivalent of command SET under DOS
  alias d='ls -l'   # easy to understand what an alias is
  alias up='cd ..'
  echo "I remind you that the path is "$PATH
  echo "Today is `date`"  # use the output of command 'date'
  echo "Have a good day, "$LOGNAME
  # The following is a "shell function"
  ctgz() # List the contents of a .tar.gz archive.
  {
    for file in $*
    do
      gzip -dc ${file} | tar tf -
    done
  }
  # end of .profile
  ______________________________________________________________________

  $PATH and $LOGNAME, you guessed right, are environment variables.
  There are many others to play with; for instance, RMP for apps like
  less or bash.

  6.2.  Program Initialisation Files

  Under Linux, virtually everything can be tailored to your needs. Most
  programs have one or more initialisation files you can fiddle with,
  often as a .prognamerc in your home dir. The first ones you'll want to
  modify are:

  ·   .inputrc: used by bash to define keybindings;

  ·   .xinitrc: used by startx to initialise X Window System;

  ·   .fvwmrc: used by the window manager fvwm. A sample is in:
     /usr/lib/X11/fvwm/system.fvwmrc;

  ·   .Xdefault: used by rxvt, a terminal emulator for X, and other
     programs.

  For all of these and the others you'll come across sooner or later,
  RMP.

  7.  A Bit of Programming

  7.1.  Shell Scripts: .BAT Files on Steroids

  If you used .BAT files to create shortcuts of long command lines (I
  did a lot), this goal can be attained by inserting appropriate alias
  lines (see example above) in profile or .profile. But if your .BATs
  were more complicated, then you'll love the scripting language made
  available by the shell: it's as powerful as QBasic, if not more. It
  has variables, structures like while, for, case, if... then... else,
  and lots of other features: it can be a good alternative to a ``real''
  programming language.

  To write a script---the equivalent of a .BAT file under DOS---all you
  have to do is write a standard ASCII file containing the instructions,
  save it, then make it executable with the command chmod +x
  <scriptfile>. To execute it, type its name.

  A word of warning. The system editor is called vi, and in my
  experience most new users find it very difficult to use. I'm not going
  to explain how to use it, because I don't like it and don't use it, so
  there. See Matt Welsh's ``Linux installation...'', pag. 109. (You had
  better get hold of another editor like joe, jed or emacs for X.)
  Suffice it here to say that:

  ·  to insert some text, type 'i' then your text;

  ·  to quit vi whithout saving, type ESC then :q!

  ·  to save and quit, type ESC then :wq

  Writing scripts under bash is such a vast subject it would require a
  book by itself, and I will not delve into the topic any further. I'll
  just give you an example of shell script, from which you can extract
  some basic rules:

  ______________________________________________________________________
  #!/bin/sh
  # sample.sh
  # I am a comment
  # don't change the first line, it must be there
  echo "This system is: `uname -a`" # use the output of the command
  echo "My name is $0" # built-in variables
  echo "You gave me the following $# parameters: "$*
  echo "The first parameter is: "$1
  echo -n "What's your name? " ; read your_name
  echo notice the difference: "hi $your_name" # quoting with "
  echo notice the difference: 'hi $your_name' # quoting with '
  DIRS=0 ; FILES=0
  for file in `ls .` ; do
    if [ -d ${file} ] ; then # if file is a directory
      DIRS=`expr $DIRS + 1`  # DIRS = DIRS + 1
    elif [ -f ${file} ] ; then
      FILES=`expr $FILES + 1`
    fi
    case ${file} in
      *.gif|*jpg) echo "${file}: graphic file" ;;
      *.txt|*.tex) echo "${file}: text file" ;;
      *.c|*.f|*.for) echo "${file}: source file" ;;
      *) echo "${file}: generic file" ;;
    esac
  done
  echo "there are ${DIRS} directories and ${FILES} files"
  ls | grep "ZxY--!!!WKW"
  if [ $? != 0 ] ; then # exit code of last command
    echo "ZxY--!!!WKW not found"
  fi
  echo "enough... type 'man bash' if you want more info."
  ______________________________________________________________________

  7.2.  C for Yourself

  Under UNIX, the system language is C, love it or hate it. Scores of
  other languages (FORTRAN, Pascal, Lisp, Basic, Perl, awk...) are also
  available.

  Taken for granted that you know C, here are a couple of guidelines for
  those of you who have been spoilt by Turbo C++ or one of its DOS kin.
  Linux's C compiler is called gcc and lacks all the bells and whistles
  that usually accompany its DOS counterparts: no IDE, on-line help,
  integrated debugger, etc. It's just a rough command-line compiler,
  very powerful and efficient. To compile your standard hello.c you'll
  do:

       $ gcc hello.c

  which will create an executable file called a.out. To give the
  executable a different name, do

  $ gcc -o hola hello.c

  To link a library against a program, add the switch -l<libname>. For
  example, to link in the math library:

       $ gcc -o mathprog mathprog.c -lm

  (The -l<libname> switch forces gcc to link the library
  /usr/lib/lib<libname>.a; so -lm links /usr/lib/libm.a).

  So far, so good. But when your prog is made of several source files,
  you'll need to use the utility make. Let's suppose you have written an
  expression parser: its source file is called parser.c and #includes
  two header files, parser.h and xy.h. Then you want to use the routines
  in parser.c in a program, say, calc.c, which in turn #includes
  parser.h. What a mess! What do you have to do to compile calc.c?

  You'll have to write a so-called makefile, which teaches the compiler
  the dependencies between sources and objects files. In our example:

  ______________________________________________________________________
  # This is makefile, used to compile calc.c
  # Press the <TAB> key at appropriate positions!

  calc: calc.o parser.o
  <TAB>gcc -o calc calc.o parser.o -lm
  # calc depends on two object files: calc.o and parser.o

  calc.o: calc.c parser.h
  <TAB>gcc -c calc.c
  # calc.o depends on two source files

  parser.o:  parser.c parser.h xy.h
  <TAB>gcc -c parser.c
  # parser.o depends on three source files

  # end of makefile.
  ______________________________________________________________________

  Save this file as makefile and type make to compile your program;
  alternatively, save it as calc.mak and type make -f calc.mak, and of
  course RMP. You can invoke some help about the C functions, that are
  covered by man pages, section 3; for example,

       $ man 3 printf

  There are lots of libraries available out there; among the first
  you'll want to use are ncurses, to handle textmode effects, and
  svgalib, to do graphics. If you feel brave enough to tackle X
  programming, get XForms ( ftp://bloch.phys.uwm.edu/pub/xforms) and/or
  one of the many libraries that make writing X programs a breeze. Have
  a look at http://www.xnet.com/~blatura/linapp6.html .

  Many editors can act as an IDE; emacs and jed, for instance, also
  feature syntax highlighting, automatic indent and so on.
  Alternatively, get the package rhide from
  sunsite.unc.edu:/pub/Linux/devel/debuggers/. It's a Borland IDE clone,
  and chances are that you'll like it.

  8.  The Remaining 1%

  8.1.  Using tar & gzip

  Under UNIX there are some widely used applications to archive and
  compress files. tar is used to make archives---it's like PKZIP but it
  doesn't compress, it only archives. To make a new archive:

       $ tar -cvf <archive_name.tar> <file> [file...]

  To extract files from an archive:

       $ tar -xpvf <archive_name.tar> [file...]

  To list the contents of an archive:

       $ tar -tf <archive_name.tar> | less

  You can compress files using compress, which is obsolete and shouldn't
  be used any more, or gzip:

       $ compress <file>
       $ gzip <file>

  that creates a compressed file with extension .Z (compress) or .gz
  (gzip). These programs can compress only one file at a time. To
  decompress, use:

  $ compress -d <file.Z>
  $ gzip -d <file.gz>

  RMP.

  The unarj, zip and unzip (PK??ZIP compatible) utilities are also
  available. Files with extension .tar.gz or .tgz (archived with tar,
  then compressed with gzip) are as common in the UNIX world as .ZIP
  files are under DOS. Here's how to list the contents of a
   .tar.gz archive:

       $ gzip -dc <file.tar.gz> | tar tf - | less

  or, equivalently,

       $ tar -ztf <file.tar.gz> | less

  8.2.  Installing Applications

  First of all: installing packages is root's work. Some Linux
  applications are distributed as .tar.gz or .tgz archives, specifically
  prepared so that they can be decompressed from / typing the following
  command:

       # gzip -dc <file.tar.gz> | tar xvf -

  or, equivalently,

       $ tar -zxf <file.tar.gz>

  The files will be decompressed in the right directory, which will be
  created on the fly. Users of the Slackware distribution have a user-
  friendly pkgtool program; another is rpm, which is available on all
  distributions thanks to Red Hat.

  Most programs shouldn't be installed from /; typically, the archive
  will contain a directory called pkgname/ and a lot of files and/or
  subdirectories under pkgname/. A good rule is to install those
  packages from /usr/local. Besides, some programs are distributed as C
  or C++ source files, which you'll have to compile to create the
  binaries.  In most cases, all you have to do is issue make. Obviously,
  you'll need the gcc or g++ compiler.

  8.3.  Tips You Can't Do Without

  Command completion: pressing <TAB> when issuing a command will
  complete the command line for you. Example: you have to type gcc
  this_is_a_long_name.c; typing gcc thi<TAB> will suffice. (If you have
  other files that start with the same characters, supply enough
  characters to resolve any ambiguity.)

  Backscrolling: pressing SHIFT + PAG UP (the grey key) allows you to
  backscroll a few pages, depending on how much video memory you have.

  Resetting the screen: if you happen to more or cat a binary file, your
  screen may end up full of garbage. To fix things, blind type reset or
  this sequence of characters: echo CTRL-V ESC c RETURN.

  Pasting text: in console, see below; in X, click and drag to select
  the text in an xterm window, then click the middle button (or the two
  buttons together if you have a two-button mouse) to paste. There is
  also xclipboard (alas, only for text); don't get confused by its very
  slow response.

  Using the mouse: install gpm, a mouse driver for the console.  Click
  and drag to select text, then right click to paste the selected text.
  It works across different VCs.

  Messages from the kernel: have a look at /var/adm/messages or
  /var/log/messages as root to see what the kernel has to tell you,
  including bootup messages. The command dmesg is also handy.

  8.4.  Useful Programs and Commands

  This list reflects my personal preferences and needs, of course. First
  of all, where to find them. Since you all know how to surf the Net and
  how to use archie and ftp, I'll just give you three of the most
  important addresses for Linux:  ftp://sunsite.unc.edu,
  ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu, and ftp://nic.funet.fi. Please use your nearest
  mirror.

  ·  at allows you to run programs at a specified time;

  ·  awk is a simple yet powerful language to manipulate data files (and
     not only). For example, being data.dat your multi field data file,

       $ awk '$2 ~ "abc" {print $1, "\t", $4}' data.dat

  prints out fields 1 and 4 of every line in data.dat whose second field
  contains ``abc''.

  ·  cron is useful to perform tasks periodically, at specified date and
     time;
  ·  delete-undelete do what their name means;

  ·  df gives you info about all mounted disk(s);

  ·  dosemu allows you to run several (not all) DOS programs---including
     Windows 3.x, with a bit of hacking;

  ·  file <filename> tells you what filename is (ASCII text, executable,
     archive, etc.);

  ·  find (see also Section ``dir'') is one of the most powerful and
     useful commands. It's used to find files that match several
     characteristics and perform actions on them. General use of find
     is:

       $ find <directory> <expression>

  where <expression> includes search criteria and actions. Examples:

       $ find . -type l -exec ls -l {} \;

  finds all the files that are symbolic links and shows what they point
  to.

       $ find / -name "*.old" -ok rm {} \;

  finds all the files matching the pattern and deletes them, asking for
  your permission first.

       $ find . -perm +111

  finds all the files whose permissions match 111 (executable).

       $ find . -user root

  finds all the files that belong to root. Lots of possibilities
  here---RMP.

  ·  gnuplot is a brilliant program for scientific plotting;

  ·  grep finds text patterns in files. For example,

       $ grep -l "geology" *.tex

  lists the files *.tex that contain the word ``geology''. The variant
  zgrep works on gzipped files. RMP;

  ·  tcx compresses executable binaries keeping them executable;

  ·  joe is an excellent editor. Invoking it by typing jstar you'll get
     the same key bindings as WordStar and its offspring, including DOS
     and Borland's Turbo languages editors;

  ·  less is probably the best text browser, and if properly configured
     lets you browse gzipped, tarred, and zipped files as well;

  ·  lpr <file> prints a file in background. To check the status of the
     printing queue, use lpq; to remove a file from the printing queue,
     use lprm;

  ·  mc is a great file manager;

  ·  pine is a nice e-mailing program;

  ·  script <script_file> copies to script_file what appears on screen
     until you issue the command exit. Useful for debugging;

  ·  sudo allows users to perform some of root's tasks (e.g.  formatting
     and mounting disks; RMP);

  ·  uname -a gives you info about your system;

  ·  zcat and zless are useful for viewing gzipped text files without
     ungzipping them. Possible use:

       $ zless textfile.gz
       $ zcat textfile.gz | lpr

  ·  The following commands often come in handy: bc, cal, chsh, cmp,
     cut, fmt, head, hexdump, nl, passwd, printf, sort, split, strings,
     tac, tail, tee, touch, uniq, w, wall, wc, whereis, write, xargs,
     znew. RMP.

  8.5.  Common Extensions and Related Programs

  You may come across scores of file extensions. Excluding the more
  exotic ones (i.e. fonts, etc.), here's a list of who's what:
  ·  1 ... 8: man pages. Get man.

  ·  arj: archive made with arj. unarj to unpack.

  ·  dvi: output file produced by TeX (see below). xdvi to visualise it;
     dvips to turn it into a PostScript .ps file.

  ·  gif: graphic file. Get seejpeg or xpaint.

  ·  gz: archive made with gzip.

  ·  info: info file (sort of alternative to man pages). Get info.

  ·  jpg, jpeg: graphic file. Get seejpeg.

  ·  lsm: Linux Software Map file. It's a plain ASCII file containing
     the description of a package.

  ·  ps: PostScript file. To visualise or print it get gs and,
     optionally, ghostview.

  ·  rpm: Red Hat package. You can install it on any system using the
     package manager rpm.

  ·  tgz, tar.gz: archive made with tar and compressed with gzip.

  ·  tex: text file to submit to TeX, a powerful typesetting program.
     Get the package tex, available in many distributions; but beware of
     NTeX, which has corrupted fonts and is included in some Slackware
     versions.

  ·  texi: texinfo file, can produce both TeX and info files (cp.
     info). Get texinfo.

  ·  xbm, xpm, xwd: graphic file. Get xpaint.

  ·  Z: archive made with compress.

  ·  zip: archive made with zip. Get zip and unzip.

  9.  The End, for Now

  Congratulations! You have now grasped a little bit of UNIX and are
  ready to start working. Remember that your knowledge of the system is
  still limited, and that you are expected to do more practice with
  Linux to use it comfortably. But if all you had to do was get a bunch
  of applications and start working with them, I bet that what I
  included here is enough.

  I'm sure you'll enjoy using Linux and will keep learning more about
  it---everybody does. I bet, too, that you'll never go back to DOS! I
  hope I made myself understood and did a good service to my 3 or 4
  readers.

  9.1.  Copyright

  Unless otherwise stated, Linux HOWTO documents are copyrighted by
  their respective authors. Linux HOWTO documents may be reproduced and
  distributed in whole or in part, in any medium physical or electronic,
  as long as this copyright notice is retained on all copies. Commercial
  redistribution is allowed and encouraged; however, the author would
  like to be notified of any such distributions.

  All translations, derivative works, or aggregate works incorporating
  any Linux HOWTO documents must be covered under this copyright notice.
  That is, you may not produce a derivative work from a HOWTO and impose
  additional restrictions on its distribution. Exceptions to these rules
  may be granted under certain conditions; please contact the Linux
  HOWTO coordinator at the address given below.

  In short, we wish to promote dissemination of this information through
  as many channels as possible. However, we do wish to retain copyright
  on the HOWTO documents, and would like to be notified of any plans to
  redistribute the HOWTOs.

  If you have questions, please contact Greg Hankins, the Linux HOWTO
  coordinator, at gregh@sunsite.unc.edu via email.

  9.2.  Disclaimer

  ``From DOS to Linux HOWTO'' was written by Guido Gonzato,
  guido@ibogfs.cineca.it.  Many thanks to Matt Welsh, the author of
  ``Linux Installation and Getting Started'', to Ian Jackson, the author
  of ``Linux frequently asked questions with answers'', to Giuseppe
  Zanetti, the author of ``Linux'', to all the folks who emailed me
  suggestions, and especially to Linus Torvalds and GNU who gave us
  Linux.

  This document is provided ``as is''. I put great effort into writing
  it as accurately as I could, but you use the information contained in
  it at your own risk. In no event shall I be liable for any damages
  resulting from the use of this work.

  Feedback is welcome. For any requests, suggestions, flames, etc., feel
  free to contact me.

  Enjoy Linux and life,

  Guido   =8-)

